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Interconnection Billing System of Grameenphone Ltd. Essay Example for Free

Interconnection Billing System of Grameenphone Ltd. Article 1.0 Introduction In mid 2008, Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) declared that rearrangement of the country’s telecom interconnection engineering according to International Long Distance Telecommunication Services (ILDTS) Policy 2007 must be finished by the mid of August, 2008 (BTRC, 2008a). This declaration by the telecom controller committed applicable telecom administrators (for example versatile and fixed systems) to take important measures to finish the re-association task inside the cutoff time while guaranteeing there is no or least supporter bother and income spillage because of this revamping. Grameenphone Ltd., the biggest mobile phone administrator of the nation having a supporter base of around 17 Million at that period (BTRC, 2008b), needed to move toward this administrative mandate with incredible significance as interconnection end charge is the wellspring of second biggest income stream for the organization (Grameenphone Annual Reports, 2008 †2011). It propelled a cross-useful undertaking to finish the interconnection rebuild task easily. This Project Team distinguished winning interconnection charging procedures and frameworks of the association as one of the key improvement zones. It was felt that current in-house created devices did not have the adaptability to suit the adjustment in arrange design. The board needed substitution of manual charging related assignments through completely robotized frameworks to guarantee quicker exchanges and age of tweaked reports. After through appraisal of different options inside the assigned spending plan by specialists from applicable cross-practical groups, Intec Interconnection Billing System (IIBS) was acquired from one of the main sellers of the world, Intec Systems Ltd. (CSGI, 2012). This paper centers around the assessment of IIBS, a howdy tech data framework and its commitment to Grameenphone Ltd., an innovation based association. Significant wellsprings of data are my encounters as an individual from this charging framework usage venture group and later use it for around 03 years; and meetings and email trade with center specialized people and different partners of IIBS. In certain zones, preparing materials gave by the charging framework merchant and web sections have been counseled also. 2.0 Overview of Intec Interconnection Billing System 2.1 Telecom Interconnect and Related Facts: Bangladesh Context â€Å"The term Interconnect in the media transmission world methods a plan of action where distinctive contending communication suppliers coincide and interconnect to each other† (4gbilling Inc., 2012). According to Bangladesh Telecommunication Act-2001, any telecom administrator must guarantee ‘any-to-any’ network so its subscriber(s) can advantageously speak with the subscriber(s) of other telecom operator(s) (BTRC, 2001c); subsequently, telecom administrators interconnect each other legitimately or through interconnection trades (it is the situation in Bangladesh after revamping of national interconnection engineering in 2008) and furthermore build up availability with remote administrators through worldwide portals. Figure 1: Block chart of Interconnectivity (adjusted from ILDTS Policy’07, BTRC 2008a) After foundation of between network, telecom administrators pay each other interconnection get to charges for the traffic (for example voice call, SMS, MMS) created by its subscriber(s) to the next at a rate commonly arranged or implemented by the controller. This interconnection installment and related undertakings, for example estimation of interconnect traffic volume started and got, age of solicitations, and approval of other operators’ solicitations are directed by their common interconnection understandings as well as significant orders from the telecom controllers (Interconnection Regulations, 2004). 2.2 Interconnect Billing Systems With the overall pattern of telecom de-guideline, interconnectivity becomes busy and telecom administrators are needing interconnection charging framework offering point by point investigation of interconnection. The target, obviously, is to settle on â€Å"smart and all around educated business choices to improve income streams† (4gbilling Inc., 2012). The significant errands achieved by utilizing Interconnect Billing framework are: - Inter-administrator settlement for traffic traded with different administrators, - Resolution of interconnection charging questions, - Generation of different reports; - Detection of different telecom fakes and aid the executives of those. 2.3 Technological Features of Intec Interconnect Billing System (IIBS) IIBS lies at the downstream of Mediation Server in the telecom organize design. It works under customer server model. The servers are controlled by HP-UX (Hewlett-Packard, 2011). It has double server: one houses Database different runs Application (Intec Training Material, 2008). Figure 2: Network Diagram of IIBS (adjusted from 4Gbilling Inc., 2012) In the customer side PCs, there are various modules for receipt age, detailing, and compromise of CDRs from other administrator, and so on. These customers are associated with the IBS application server utilizing LAN (Local Area Network). Customer PCs may run Microsoft Windows working frameworks. The customers can get to IIBS’s application through Graphical User Interface (GUI) or through online Oracle Discoverer (a modified apparatus) says Mr. Raiyan Karim, System Engineer, IBS of Grameenphone Ltd. (Karim, 2012). A group inside the Information Technology office are alloted the assignment to design and work IIBS while the clients are spread everywhere throughout the association running from Finance to Regulatory Affairs capacities. 2.4 Categorisation of IIBS as Information System As a data framework, Intec Interconnect Billing System (IIBS) can be arranged in a few points of view. From equipment viewpoint (Bocij et al, 2008: Chapter 3), IIBS has the essential catch/input innovation being used is the LAN network with an upstream application server, exceptionally ground-breaking CPU as processor, 25 Terabyte online attractive plate stockpiling and yield can be taken through either screen show, e-record or printed papers. From programming point of view (Bocij et al, 2008: Chapter 4), IIBS is an application programming, to be explicit, application to process enormous databases containing CDRs. From the executives level points of view (Laudon and Laudon, 2012), IIBS can be arranged for the most part as an exchange handling framework as it manages cases of interconnection traffic traded (for example call/SMS/MMS made to got from different administrators). This framework serves prerequisites of operational administration and at the same time, the yields from this framework has a more extensive course to various administration levels even up to top officials mostly because of significance of related business movement (interconnectivity) for media transmission industry. From authoritative capacity (Laudon and laudon, 2006) points of view, IIBS is an Information Technology business territory explicit data framework. It handles advanced client call records for age of interconnection charging subtleties. From the points of view of reach (Boddy et al, 2005: 37-38), IIBS is recognized as an intra-hierarchical May be. Despite the fact that its center use exists in the IT branch of Grameenphone, this framework is as often as possible got to from different pieces of the associations for example Account, Marketing, Regulatory Affairs, and so forth. Additionally, as IIBS adds to accomplish generally authoritative objectives for example dependable settlement of interconnection income, help in creating market contributions, it can without much of a stretch be named as an intra-authoritative Seems to be. 3.0 Supported Organizational Processes The authoritative procedures bolstered by IIBS can be investigated by utilizing two methodologies: a) CIPSODAR model of data framework (Heeks, 2011a) and b) use and uses of PC based IS by hierarchical level (Bocij et al, 2008: P 45). 3.1 CIPSODAR on IIBS IIBS catches handled CDR (Call Detail Records) from Mediation server (â€Å"a framework used to change over information of certain datatypes to different datatypes, as a rule for charging purposes†, Wikipedia, 2012). These interceded CDRs are feed into IIBS as data sources. Figure 3: IIBS on CIPSODAR model (adjusted from Heeks, 2011a) The caught CDRs need to contain at any rate 06 data fields which are in numeric structure (Intec Systems, 2008): i.Unique CDR recognizable proof no. related with each call made to got from different administrators, ii.phone no. of call beginning supporter, iii.phone no. of call beneficiary endorser, iv.call start time, v.call span, vi.Intelligent arrange stamping used to distinguish post-paid or prepaid supporter. These interceded CDRs are additionally handled by IIBS, for example characterizing dependent on different pre-set measures for example paid ahead of time, post-paid, beginning administrator, ending administrator; arranging thereof dependent on every measure, lastly gathering. IIBS has astounding preparing limit as it handles around 70 Million CDRs in at regular intervals (Karim, 2012). IIBS utilizes two kinds of capacity: one is online which has enormous capacity ability to store CDRS for back to back 04 months and another is more established CDRs which are moved to attractive tapes for filing. Yield from IIBS is charging subtleties ordered dependent on interconnect administrator, approaching call stream, active call stream, or length for example day-wise or month-wise. Beneficiaries can create receipt to be given to different administrators or modified reports utilizing the customer side invoicing or detailing modules of IIBS. The yields produced from IIBS information help the association to settle on its interconnection business technique for example incorporate extra interconnect limit with some administrator or define marketable strategy for example elevate calls to different administrators by bringing down client charge. Activities incorporate execution of inside business procedure or legally binding commitments of interconnection understanding. The res

HR Things to Consider when Firing an Employee

HR Things to Consider when Firing an Employee Though it may be necessary, it is not easy to fire an employee especially when the latter has put in a long period of service for the company or a personal relationship or bond has developed between employer and employee. However, the process can be made less agonizing for both by gathering all necessary information concerning job termination ahead of time. Also, here are two points that are worth mentioning at the very outset:First, the employee should already be aware of the company’s disciplinary and termination policies prior to his being hired.Secondly, you should consider employment termination only as a last resort. Take this drastic step only if performance coaching has not produced favorable outcomes. © Shutterstock.com | NOBUHIRO ASADAThe article deals with these areas pertaining to things to consider when firing people 1) before firing, 2) what are the different types of termination, 3) notice and/or severance pay, and 4) termination meeting.BEFORE FIRINGThe following are some considerations to keep in mind before taking the ultimate step of firing an employee.What is PIP (Performance Improvement Plan)A Performance Improvement Plan (PIP), otherwise termed as a Performance Action Plan may be defined as a written tool that supervisors may utilize to better the behavior or performance of the employee. The PIP looks into performance incongruities recognized in the course of the performance appraisal. It is a wonderful tool, on the one hand, to hold poorly performing employees accountable for their performance and, on the other hand, to provide them with an opportunity to succeed.Progressive Disciplinary ActionIf you find that the employee cannot or is unwilling to better his perfor mance, you may want to begin progressive disciplinary action. Documentation is essential here so that you have a record of all the sequence of steps you took. Once you start progressive disciplinary action for one employee, the steps followed should be consistent for any other employees you fire unless some out-of-the-ordinary happening causes you to take an exception.Do not fire on the basis of age (more than 40 years), sex, race, religion, disability, national origin or reasons pertaining to being on leaveThere exist state and federal laws to safeguard workers from prejudice connected to any of these factors. You should also consider whether a false claim may be made that you fired based on any of these factors even if you didn’t. An example is when you have just one white guy in your office, and all the other employees are Indians. If you have to sack the white employee for performance issues, you have reason to be concerned about a possible national/race origin claim.Do not fi re in revenge for an employee reporting you to the authorities for violation of lawIf firing an employee is based on complaints made by a supervisor, ask for documentation of the incompetence or keep your own copies of performance reviews. If the progressive discipline process causes the outcome of termination with cause, meticulous process documentation proving that progressive discipline was consistently and rightly applied would be required. So if you did not do it this time, next time, make sure you have copies of all the warnings or negative reports you provided the employee with. You would be safeguarding your company and yourself if you have proof that on two or more occasions, you provided the worker with a warning in writing pertaining to his attitude or job performance being sub-par.If you possess written policies pertaining to employee discipline protocol for improper conduct or insubordination, or poor performance reviews, make certain of their being followed to in the t ermination letter prior to firing someone on those grounds.Consider whether the employee will do better if he is put in another roleJust because an employee does not perform well in the particular department he is in, doesn’t necessarily mean he is a bad employee. There is possibly plenty of room even in a not-so-big business, for job motility. He may just be at the wrong post or department. So don’t fire someone for bad performance without first analyzing whether he would do better somewhere else in the company. Engage in honest conversation with your peers pertaining to the issues you had with the particular employee and the strengths you see in him.Be preparedMake sure you are aware of and understand all the procedures and protocol from beginning to end. You must be in a position to answer to questions pertaining to how to respond when the employee requests for his last paycheck or how to collect property such as electronics or keys from the employee. The chances are also ver y high for the employee to want to know why he was fired in the first place, and obviously so. So be prepared and don’t forget to have documented examples of unsatisfactory performance in hand. If you’re unprepared, you risk saying the wrong thing that would possibly push you into hot water, if not now, then later. Safeguard your business and workforce by refraining from winging it when it comes to firing an employee.Make sure you have the approval of higher authorities and are following internal proceduresUnless you are the company’s owner, you require formal approval from your superiors to fire an employee. The distance up the ladder to which you need to get the approval depends on the size of your firm as well as your position on that ladder. However, irrespective of these factors, the approval process should incorporate your boss. The reason you need to do this is because people tend to object to being dismissed from their job and their objection would probably include a c omplaint. When the employee does complain, it is possible that your boss would demand reinstatement of the fired employee. Imagine the situation of having a bad employee remaining in your department because of ignorance from your boss’s side that caused him to override your decision. So make sure you get the necessary approvals and agreements prior to terminating.Ongoing FeedbackDid you give the employee ongoing feedback about his performance before taking the ultimate step? Before firing an employee, you must make sure that you gave him ongoing feedback about his poor performance and gave him a chance to improve. However, this can be foregone if the employee’s actions call for immediate dismissal.LegalitiesIt is good to consult a lawyer, be sure you understand federal law, also each state has its employment laws. Employment laws vary with state, so it is essential to consult an HR specialist or lawyer in the particular state of the employee’s employment to know about any spec ific state requirements. In addition, if you are dismissing many employees at one go, there are special laws for that too, at the federal and state levels.Exit InterviewThe exit interview provides you with an opportunity to understand more about the strengths and weaknesses of your company from employees who are fired. It doesn’t just provide feedback pertaining to your business’ operations, but also helps reveal worrying aspects about pay and working conditions, and issues with the management and employees. Chances are higher for fired employees than employees who voluntarily resign to give you the truth. You can gain useful knowledge, tips, contacts and more from the departing employee.Exit interviews can also give you documentation that could be potentially useful should you ever be charged for wrongful termination. During the exit interview, the employee may reveal points which you can utilize in your defense, especially if the employee acknowledges his unsatisfactory perfor mance on the job.Although he face-to-face discussion in an exit interview is an personal and ideal way for both parties for reasons provided above, if you have a concern that firing an employee might provoke violence, then an alternative way is to write a  termination letter instead of having a face-to-face confrontation.WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TERMINATIONFive types of termination / firing are discussed below.1. Voluntary TerminationAs the term itself indicates, this kind of termination refers to the employee resigning out of his desire to do so. The employee would furnish a resignation letter, or else, some notice that includes the date he intends to end his services. Though it is not necessary, the employee may provide a reason for voluntarily vacating or terminating his position.2. Termination with causeAt law, this kind of termination means an omission or action on the part of the employee has destroyed the employment connection between employer and employee to such an e xtent that the damage is irreparable. Typically, this type of termination happens when the employee is fired for a grave reason pertaining to his conduct.Not all labor/employment standards have ‘termination with cause’ as a classification, but those that do, find deliberately avoiding duties, disobedience and willful misconduct as permissible reasons for it. Situations that could warrant termination with cause include violence (actual or threatened), harassment, violation of company ethics policy or code of conduct, watching pornography online or extreme insubordination.3. Termination without causeThis form of termination has to do with termination of the employee’s employment for reasons not pertaining to misconduct. For the same, a termination notice and maybe severance pay would be needed as sketched in the labor/employment standards. For termination without cause, the employer is not legally bound to provide a reason. Having said that, the majority of terminated employees would want to know the reason for the termination. You can be honest and fair when asked about the reason, however, under no circumstance, must you claim you have a reason.With respect to nonprofit organizations, termination without cause is frequently the outcome of changes in funding or organization restructuring.4. Employment at willIf the particular state is one that recognizes employment at will, it means the employee can be dismissed at any time and for any reason, whether or not there is any cause to do so. Employers are not even required to furnish a reason for terminating the employee from his job. However, to protect against possible claims of discrimination, it is advisable for employers to keep supporting documentation ready whether or not a case is put forth at the termination meeting.5. Mutual TerminationSometimes, there comes a situation when the employer feels a particular employee is unsatisfactory at his role. What’s more, the said employee himself doesn’t feel like things are working out well at his job. In such a situation, both employer and employee part by mutual agreement, such that neither party is held liable for the termination. Depending on the nature of the contract, the employer may call for the employee to remain till his contract expires, or a replacement is found.NOTICE AND SEVERANCE PAYNotice is the duration of time between telling an employee in writing of the termination and the exact date of the termination taking effect (this is the last day the employee will receive wages). An employer cannot make an employment agreement with an employee for a period below the minimum notice requirement stipulated in labor/employment standards.When notice is requiredIn the majority of cases, an employer must furnish written notice of the aim to end employment and the termination date. Suppose you as an employer wish to terminate with immediate effect, the majority of labor/employment standards give employers the choice of payment in li eu of the notice period (however a written termination notice with the date, when the employee’s termination would take effect, is still required). The amount for payment in lieu of notice depends on the employee’s regular weekly salary. However, benefits should also be covered for the period of notice.After the initial month(s) that don’t require a notice for termination, the length of prior notice called for by law, for termination, is directly linked to how long the employee served the organization.When it is not requiredA notice is not required for termination for a particular period at the start of employment, depending on the particular province.Payment in lieu of noticeThis means an employer would perhaps opt to have the termination proceed immediately and so instead of a notice, provide payment to the employee for the notice period required by legislation or concurred with in the employment contract (if more than that called for by legislation).Severance paySome jurisd ictions call for an employee who is terminated without cause to be given severance pay. The amount of severance pay varies with the employer’s size and the employee’s length of service.TERMINATION MEETINGHere are some pointers to keep in mind with respect to the termination meeting.Location: Choose it carefully. It should be a neutral site (a meeting room would be good) instead of your office. The location should be one that ensures privacy and enables the terminated employee to leave without the discomfiture of facing or bumping into other staff.Be sensitive about the day/date, whenever possible: Make sure the termination meeting doesn’t fall on any date of importance in the employee’s life. Try to terminate towards the close of the day so that all or most of the employees would have already left, thereby again, avoiding embarrassment to the employee to be terminated. Avoid vacations and holidays for termination. Termination on a Friday is an absolute no-no. An employee who is terminated on a Friday will not be able to gather counseling or legal advice before the weekend and so, will possibly build up anger and worry over the whole weekend with respect to his horrible situation.Documents should be ready: The letter of termination which provides the date when the termination takes effect and any amount you are giving, should be ready.Who should be present?: Two people from the management team should be in attendance at the meeting.Be brief and speak only what is relevant: Make the situation clear to the employee but avoid personal, emotional and other unsuitable remarks. Admit that the employee can seek legal counsel if he wants.Make certain that the employee gives any of the organization’s property in his possession back to the organization and also shares computer passwords (if relevant). However, treat the employee with dignity when ensuring this. An example is: supposing you want to discontinue the employee’s computer access, provide the employ ee with a chance to prepare a farewell email or any other farewell tweet, before you proceed with cutting the access. If you have real security concerns, you can have someone sit with the employee till he finishes and have the security accompany the employee as he leaves the building. However, don’t resort to these means unless it is necessary.In closing this article, it is worth mentioning that you remember to be respectful but impersonal to make the termination process less of a hassle for both you and the employee.

Animal Rights and the Dominant Worldview toward Animals Essay

Our world today is becoming less and less aware of the pain and suffering being inflicted on animals. In outcome, animals are becoming even more and more tarred in society. Humans have and is continuing to handle animals as if they are some kind of material goods. This is considered as being immoral, as animals have their own lives, and they think, have feelings, can feel pain, require love, have families, and everything else that humans possess. The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The Declaration sets out â€Å"a common standard of achievement† for all people and all nations. Even so the nation have pledged to recognize this declaration, still many people throughout the†¦show more content†¦He believes that animals were no more than â€Å"complicated biological robots† (BCC 3). Ilana Mercer holds the same worldview as Descartes, but has different arguments. She argues similarly that there are no rights for animals and that â€Å"unlike human beings, animals by their nature are not moral agents. They possess no free will, no capacity to tell right from wrong, and cannot reflect on their actions, while they often act quite wonderfully their motions are merely a matter of conditioning† (2). To support Mercer, Cargile quotes, â€Å"a human has as much right to eat meat as a hawk or a fox does† (James 13). He considers that it is quite natural to eat animals and use animal products and that we have no moral qualms about doing so (James 13). Neil Schulman also holds a dominant worldview and asserts that the ‘animal rights’ movement is relying upon a logical fallacy which is based on commonly restricted premises. The first premise is that â€Å"human beings are no different from other animals, with no divine or elevated nature which makes us distinct† (1) Second, human beings are â€Å"ethically bound not to use other animals for their own selfish purposes† (1) He completely goes against these arguments and directly states that animal rights do not exist in any case (1). Lee, who also holds a dominant worldview prolongs that animals do notShow MoreRelatedEssay on Animal Rights across the World1911 Words   |  8 Pagesand suffering being inflicted on animals. As the outcome, animals are becoming even further tarred in society. Humans have and are continuing to handle animals as if they are some kind of material goods. This is considered as being immoral, as animals have their own lives, and they think, have feelings, can feel pain, require love, happiness, and everything else that humans have. As for human rights, it’s always uncertain. 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The Rise Of International Trade - 1283 Words

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History of Polygraph Test in the U.S. Free Essays

Executive Summary The development of the polygraph test, to measure a suspect’s honesty during interrogation, began in the 1890s. The modern polygraph test has been around since the 1930s. Wires connected to a suspect detect physiological changes and transfer that information to a graph, and a scientist then interprets the graph. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Polygraph Test in the U.S. or any similar topic only for you Order Now The results are somewhat subjective. Honesty tests rely on psychological measurements rather than physiological measurements. Honesty tests ask a series of questions, such as whether the test subject would return a lost wallet, to determine the likelihood that he would be dishonest. They are often used by employers before hiring or during investigations of employees suspected of corporate dishonesty. Both polygraph tests and honesty tests are highly controversial. Both require some level of subjective interpretation by the polygraph scientist or honesty test psychologist. For the polygraph tests, it is possible for examiners to manipulate the results by carefully crafting the questions to elicit higher physiological responses. Results are rarely admissible in court. INTRODUCTION A  polygraph  (popularly referred to as a  lie detector) measures and records several physiological indices such as  blood pressure,  pulse,  respiration, and  skin conductivity  while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers. The polygraph was invented in 1921 by  John Augustus Larson, a medical student at the  University of California at Berkeleyand a police officer of the  Berkeley Police Department  in Berkeley, California. According to  Encyclopedia, the polygraph was on its 2003 list of greatest inventions, described by the company as inventions that â€Å"have had profound effects on human life for better or worse. Many members of the  scientific community  consider polygraphy to be  pseudoscience. Nonetheless, in some countries polygraphs are used as an  interrogation  tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. US federal government agencies such as the FBI and the CIA and many police departments such as the LAPD use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the US federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a  psycho physiological detection of deception  (PDD) examination. Testing procedure Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: analog and computerized. In the  United States, most examiners now use computerized  instrumentation. A typical polygraph test starts with a pre-test  interview  to gain some preliminary information which will later be used for â€Å"control questions†, or CQ. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a â€Å"stim test† is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Guilty  subjects are likely to become more anxious when they are reminded of the test’s validity. However, there are risks of innocent subjects being equally or more anxious than the guilty. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are â€Å"irrelevant† or IR (â€Å"Is your name Chris? ), others are â€Å"probable-lie† control questions that most people will lie about (â€Å"Have you ever stolen money? â€Å") and the remainders are the â€Å"relevant questions†, or RQ, that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses during the probable-lie control questions (CQ) are larger than those during the relevant questions (RQ). If this is not the case, the tester attempts to elicit admissions during a post-test interview, for example, â€Å"Your situation will only get worse if we don’t clear this up†. Criticisms have been given regarding the validity of the administration of the Comparative Questions test (CQT). The CQT may be vulnerable to being conducted in an interrogation-like fashion. This kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous response from innocent and guilty suspects alike. There are several other ways of administrating the questions. An alternative is the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT), or the Concealed Information Test (CIT), which is being used in  Japan. The administration of this test is given to prevent potential errors that may arise from the questioning style. The test is usually conducted by a tester with no knowledge of the  crime  or circumstances in question. The administrator tests the participant on their knowledge of the crime that would not be known to an innocent person. For example: â€Å"Was the crime committed with a . 45 or a 9 mm? † The questions are in multiple choices and the participant is rated on how they react to the correct answer. If they react strongly to the guilty information, then proponents of the test believe that it is likely that they know facts relevant to the case. This administration is considered more valid by supporters of the test because it contains many safeguards to avoid the risk of the administrator influencing the results. Validity Polygraphy has little evidence to support its use. Despite claims of 90% validity by polygraph advocates, the  National Research Council  has found no evidence of effectiveness. The utility among sex offenders is also poor with insufficient evidence to support accuracy or improved outcomes in this population. Even using the high estimates of polygraph’s accuracy a significant number of subjects will appear to be lying, and would unfairly suffer the consequences of â€Å"failing† the polygraph. In the 1998  Supreme Court  case,  United States v. Scheffer, the majority stated that â€Å"There is simply no consensus that polygraph evidence is reliable† and â€Å"Unlike other expert witnesses who testify about factual matters outside the jurors’ knowledge, such as the analysis of fingerprints, ballistics, or DNA found at a crime scene, a polygraph expert can supply the jury only with another opinion†¦ In 2005 the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals stated that â€Å"polygraphy did not enjoy general acceptance from the scientific community†. In 2001 William Iacono, Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience concluded that Although the CQT [Control Question Test] may be useful as an investigative aid and tool to induce confessions, it does not pass muster as a scientifically credible test. CQT theory is based on naive, implausible assumptions indicating (a) that it is biased against innocent individuals and (b) that it can be beaten simply by artificially augmenting responses to control questions. Although it is not possible to adequately assess the error rate of the CQT, both of these conclusions are supported by published research findings in the best social science journals (Honts et al. , 1994; Horvath, 1977; Kleinmuntz Szucko, 1984; Patrick Iacono, 1991). Although defense attorneys often attempt to have the results of friendly CQTs admitted as evidence in court, there is no evidence supporting their validity and ample reason to doubt it. Members of scientific organizations who have the requisite background to evaluate the CQT are overwhelmingly skeptical of the claims made by polygraph proponents. Summarizing the consensus in psychological research, Professor David W. Martin, PhD, from North Carolina State University, states that people have tried to use the polygraph for measuring human emotions, but there is simply no royal road to (measuring) human emotions. Therefore, since one cannot reliably measure human emotions (especially when one has an interest in iding his/her emotions), the idea of valid detection of truth or falsehood through measuring respiratory rate, blood volume, pulse rate and galvanic skin response is a mere pretense. Psychologists cannot ascertain what emotions one has, with or without the use of polygraph. Polygraphs measure physiological arousal which can pinpoint  deception  rather than â€Å"lies†. National Academy of Sciences The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almos t since the introduction of the device. In 2003, the  National Academy of Sciences  (NAS) issued a report entitled â€Å"The Polygraph and Lie Detection†. The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was â€Å"unreliable, unscientific and biased†, concluding that 57 of the approximately 80 research studies that the APA relies on to come to their conclusions were significantly flawed. These studies did show that specific-incident polygraph testing, in a person untrained in counter-measures, could discern the truth at â€Å"a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection†. However, due to several flaws, the levels of accuracy shown in these studies â€Å"are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field†. When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in  national security  matters and for  law enforcement  agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that â€Å"Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in  federal agencies. † In fact, the NAS extrapolated that if the test were sensitive enough to detect 80% of spies (a level of accuracy which it did not assume), this would hardly be sufficient anyway. Let us take for example a hypothetical polygraph screening of a body of 10,000 employees among which are 10 spies. With an 80% success rate, the polygraph test would show that 8 spies and 1,992 non-spies fail the test. Thus, roughly 99. 6 percent of positives (those failing the test) would be  false  positives. The NAS concluded that the polygraph â€Å"†¦ may have some utility† but that there is â€Å"little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy. â€Å" The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier  United States Congress  Office of Technology Assessment  report â€Å"Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation†. Similarly, a report to congress by the  Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy on national security concluded that † The few Government-sponsored scientific research reports on polygraph validity (as opposed to its utility), especially those focusing on the screening of applicants for employment, indicate that the polygraph is neither scientifically valid nor especially effective beyond its ability to generate admissions.. . Countermeasures Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described. Asked how he passed the polygraph test,  Aldrich Ames  explained that he sought advice from his Soviet  handler and received the simple instruction to: â€Å"Get a good night’s sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm. † Additionally, Ames said, â€Å"`There’s no special magic†¦ Confidence is what does it. Confidence and a friendly relationship with the examiner†¦ apport, where you smile and you make him think that you like him. Other suggestions for countermeasures include for the subject to mentally record the control and relevant questions as the examiner reviews them prior to commencing the interrogation. Once the interrogation begins, the subject is then supposed to carefully control their  breathing  during the relevant questions, and to try to artificially increase their heart  during the control questions, such as by thinking of something scary or exciting or by pricking themselves with a pointed object concealed somewhere on their body. In this way the results will not show a significant reaction to any of the relevant questions. Usage Law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users of polygraph technology. In the United States alone all federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners employed in other agencies. This is despite their unreliability. For example in 1978  Richard Helms, the 8th Director of Central Intelligence stated that: â€Å"We discovered there were some Eastern Europeans who could defeat the polygraph at any time. Americans are not very good at it, because we are raised to tell the truth and when we lie it is easy to tell we are lying. But we find a lot of Europeans and Asiatics [who] can handle that polygraph without a blip, and you know they are lying and you have evidence that they are lying. † United States In 2007, polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in 19 states, and was subject to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court. The use of polygraph in court testimony remains controversial, although it is used extensively in post-conviction supervision, particularly of sex offenders. In  Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals  (1993), the old  Frye standard  was lifted and all forensic evidence, including polygraph, had to meet the new  Daubert standard  in which â€Å"underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue. † While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test. [citation needed]  In  United States v. Scheffer  (1998),the  U. S. Supreme Court  left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by  prosecutors,  defense attorneys, and  law enforcement agencies. In the States of  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  Jersey, Delaware  and  Iowa  it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment, or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing. The  Employee Polygraph Protection Act  of 1988 (EPPA) generally prevents employers from using lie detector tests, either for pre-employment screening or during the course of employment, with certain exemptions. In the United States, the State of  New Mexico  admits polygraph testing in front of  juries  under certain circumstances. In many other states, polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of  hearings  (Motion  to Revoke  Probation, Motion to Adjudicate Guilt). Europe In most  European  jurisdictions, polygraphs are not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by law enforcement. Courts themselves do not order nor facilitate polygraph testing. In most cases, polygraph tests are voluntarily taken by a defendant in order to substantiate his or her defense. The  Federal Court of Justice of Germany  has ruled that polygraph evidence is inherently inconclusive and not admissible in court. Motions by prosecution or defense for polygraph tests to be exercised will be declined under any circumstance. Canada In Canada, the polygraph is regularly used as a forensic tool in the investigation of criminal acts and sometimes employed in the screening of employees for government organizations. In the 1987 decision of  R. v. Beland, the  Supreme Court of Canada  rejected the use of polygraph results as evidence in court. This decision did not, however, affect the use of the polygraph in criminal investigations. The polygraph continues to be used as an investigative tool. Australia The  High Court of Australia  has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence. However, the  New South Wales  District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial. In  Raymond George Murray  1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defence. The judge rejected the evidence because 1. The veracity of the accused and the weight to be given to his evidence, and other witnesses called in the trial, was a matter for the jury. 2. The polygraph â€Å"expert† sought to express an opinion as to ultimate facts in issue, which is peculiarly the province of the jury. 3. The test purported to be expert evidence by the witness who was not qualified as an expert, he was merely an operator and assessor of a polygraph. The scientific premise upon which his assessment was based had not been proved in any Court in Australia. 4. Devoid of any proved or accepted scientific basis, the evidence of the operator is  hearsay  which is inadmissible. The Court cited, with approval, the Canadian case of  Phillion v R  1978 1SCR 18. Lie detector evidence is currently inadmissible in New South Wales courts under the  Lie Detectors Act. Israel The  High Court of Israel, in Civil Appeal 551/89 (Menora Insurance Vs. Jacob Sdovnik), ruled that as the polygraph has not been recognized as a reliable device, polygraph results are inadmissible as evidence in a  civil trial. In other decisions, polygraph results were ruled inadmissible in criminal trials. However, some insurance companies attempt to include a clause in insurance contracts, in which the beneficiary agrees that polygraph results be admissible as evidence. In such cases, where the beneficiary has willingly agreed to such a clause, signed the contract, and taken the test, the courts will honor the contract, and take the polygraph results into consideration. Interestingly, it is common practice for  lawyersto advise people who signed such contracts to refuse to take the test. Depending on whether or not the beneficiary signed an agreements clause, and whether the test was already taken or not, such a refusal usually has no ill effects; at worst, the court will simply order the person to take the test as agreed. At best, the court will cancel the clause and release the person from taking the test, or rule the evidence inadmissible. India Recently an Indian court adopted the  brain electrical oscillations signature test  as evidence to convict a woman, who was accused of murdering her fiance. It is the first time that the result of polygraph was used as evidence in court. On May 5, 2010,  The Supreme Court of India  declared use of  narcoanalysis,  brain mapping  and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal and against the constitution. Article 20(3) of the Indian Constitution-â€Å"No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. † Polygraph tests are still legal if the defendant requests one. Security clearances In the American military and intelligence communities, polygraphs have been administered both as terms of qualifying for a security clearance and as part of a periodic reinvestigation to retain a clearance. There is no uniform standard for whether the polygraph is needed, as some methods of adjudication do not demand a successful polygraph test to earn a clearance. Other agencies, particularly certain military units, actually prohibit polygraph testing on their members. According to a report to congress, polygraphy in the security clearance context has little utility in detecting untruth, but significant utility in inducing verbal admissions. That is, polygraphy is mainly useful as a prop in the interrogation process. Further, this likely accounts for its continuing use by government agencies. It is difficult to precisely determine the effectiveness of polygraph results for the detection or deterrence of spying. Failure of a polygraph test could cause revocation of a security clearance, but it is inadmissible evidence in most federal courts and military courts martial. The polygraph is more often used as a deterrent to espionage rather than detection. One exception to this was the case of  Harold James Nicholson, a CIA employee later convicted of spying for  Russia. In 1995, Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to â€Å"scare straight† those who would consider espionage. Jonathan  was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. Likewise,  John Anthony Walker  was advised to by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required, to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required, and to retire when promotion was mandated. As part of his  plea bargain  agreement for his case of espionage for the  Soviet Union,  Robert Hanssen  would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as part of damage assessment. In Hanssen’s 25-year career with the  FBI, not once was he made to undergo a polygraph. He later said that if he had been ordered to, he may have thought twice about espionage. Alternatively, the use of polygraph testing, where it causes desperation over dismissal for past dishonesty, may encourage spying. For example,  Edward Lee Howard  was dismissed from the CIA when, during a polygraph screening, he truthfully answered a series of questions admitting to minor crimes such as petty theft and drug abuse. In retaliation for his perceived unjust punishment for minor offenses, he later sold his knowledge of CIA operations to the Soviet Union. It is also worth noting that polygraph tests may not deter espionage. From 1945 to the present, at least six Americans had been committing espionage while they successfully passed polygraph tests. Two of the most notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were  Larry Wu-Tai Chin  and  Aldrich Ames. Ames was given two polygraph examinations while with the CIA, the first in 1986 and the second in 1991. The CIA reported that he passed both examinations after experiencing initial indications of deception. According to a Senate investigation, an FBI review of the first examination concluded that the indications of deception were never resolved. The Senate committee reported that the second examination, at a time when Ames was under suspicion, resulted in indications of deception and a retest a few days later with a different examiner. The second examiner concluded that there were no further indications of deception. In the CIA’s analysis of the second exam, they were critical of their own failure to convey to their examiner the existing suspicions that were not addressed in the examination. In August 2008, the US  Defense Intelligence Agency  announced that it would subject each of its 5,700 prospective and current employees to a polygraph interrogation at least once annually. In 2012, a  McClatchy  investigation found that the  National Reconnaissance Office  was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from subjects during polygraph interrogations. Alternative tests Most polygraph researchers have focused more the exam’s predictive value on a subject’s guilt. However, there have been no empirical theories established to explain how a polygraph measures deception. Recent research indicates that  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging  (fMRI) may benefit in explaining the psychological correlations of polygraph exams. It could also explain which parts of the brain are active when subjects use artificial memories. Most brain activity occurs in both sides of the  ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which is linked to response inhibition. This indicates that deception involves a subject’s inhibition of certain questions, such as attempting to be truthful while lying. Recalling artificial memories are known to activate the  posterior cingulate cortex. However, fMRIs are limited to being expensive, immobile, and having inconsistent lying responses. Some researchers believe that  reaction time  (RT) based tests may replace polygraphs in concealed information detection. RT based tests differ from polygraphs in stimulus presentation duration, and can be conducted without physiological recording as subject response time is measured via computer. However, researchers have found limitations to these tests as subjects voluntarily control their reaction time, deception can still occur within the response deadline, and the test itself lacks physiological recording. Society and culture Lie detection has a long history in mythology and fairy tales; the polygraph has allowed modern fiction to use a device more easily seen as scientific and plausible. Notable instances of polygraph usage include uses in crime and espionage themed television shows and some  daytime television  talk shows, cartoons and films. The most notable polygraph TV show is  Lie Detector, which first aired in the 1950s created and hosted by  Ralph Andrews. Then in the 1960s Ralph produced a series of specials hosted by  Melvin Belli, then in the 1970s hosted by Jack Anderson. In 1998 TV producer  Mark Phillips  with his Mark Phillips Philms Telephision put  Lie Detector  back on the air on the FOX Network—on that program Dr. Ed Gelb with host  Marcia Clark  cleared  Mark Fuhrman  from the allegation that he â€Å"planted the bloody glove. † Later Phillips produced  Lie Detector  as a series for PAX/ION—some of the guests included  Paula Jones, Reverend  Paul Crouch  accuser Lonny Ford, Ben Rowling,  Jeff Gannon  and  Swift Boat Vet, Steve Garner. FOX has taken this one step further with their game show  The Moment of Truth  which pits people’s honesty against their own sense of modesty, propriety, etc. Contestants are given a polygraph test administered by a polygraph expert in a pre-screening session answering over 50 questions. Later they must sit in front of a studio audience including their friends family for the televised portion of the show. There they need only answer 21 answers truthfully â€Å"as determined by the polygraph† to win $500,000. The questions get more personal and/or more revealing as they advance. Most polygraph experts caution that the polygraph techniques used on Moment of Truth do not conform to any known or accepted methods of polygraphy. citation needed] Daytime talk shows, such as  Maury Povich  and  Steve Wilkos, frequently use lie detectors to tell if someone is cheating on their significant other. In one  MacGyver  episode ‘Slow Death’, MacGyver assists the Indian tribesmen by improvising a polygraph to weed out the crooked doctor. This is made possible by using an analog sphygmomanometer  to monitor blood pressure ch ange, and an electronic alarm clock to detect sweat. To test its reliability, MacGyver asked a passenger on the train a few ‘placebo’ questions. The culprit was only discovered when he was trying to hide his crime, thus his sweat triggered the alarm clock and blood pressure climbed up. In the movie  Harsh Times  the protagonist, played by actor  Christian Bale, is caught trying to â€Å"beat† a polygraph test during a pre-employment screening for a federal law enforcement job. He stores a tack in the toe of his shoe and uses the pain sensation to mask his true apprehension of certain questions. The polygraph is immediately suspicious and the examination is ended. In the movie  Ocean’s 13, one of the characters beats a polygraph test by stepping on a tack when answering truthfully, which supposedly raises the polygraph’s readings for the truthful answers so they equal the deceptive ones. In the television series  Profit, there is a memorable sequence at the end of episode â€Å"Healing† where the eponymous character, Jim Profit, manages to fool a polygraph. He does that by putting a nail through the sole of his shoe and pushing it inside of his heel while answering every question in order to even out the readings. This scene is very graphic, especially for its time, 1996. During a voice over, Profit explains the theory behind the polygraph and the flaws he intends to exploit in it. In episode 93 of the USA popular science show  Myth busters, they attempted to fool the polygraph by using pain to try to increase the readings when answering truthfully (so the machine will supposedly interpret the truthful and non-truthful answers as the same. ) They also attempted to fool the polygraph by thinking happy thoughts when lying and thinking stressful thoughts when telling the truth to try to confuse the machine. However, neither technique was successful for a number of reasons. Michael Martin correctly identified each guilty and innocent subject. The show also noted the opinion that, when done properly, polygraphs are correct 80-99% of the time. Police Polygraph Test [pic]  »Ã‚  The police polygraph pre test interview |  Ã‚  [pic] |The pretest interview is considered an important component of the polygraph examination. An important | |  Ã‚   |purpose of the pre test interview is to persuade you that the examination is conducted in a professional | | |manner and that any deception attempted will be obvious to the examiner. Such instructions, place truthful | | |subjects at ease and increase anxiety in subjects who intend to be deceptive. Persuading subjects about the| | |effectiveness of the examination should sharpen differences between deceptive and non deceptive subjects in| | |their reactions to questions about a particular question. | | |Pretest interviews typically take from 20 to 30 minutes. As a police applicant you will   be told that the | | |polygraph examination is voluntary and you’ll   be asked to sign a waiver form. You will also be told how | | |the results of the examination will be used. | In the case of police employment you will be advised that a copy of the test results will be provided to the police department you applied to, and that you will not be asked questions concerning such areas as political activities, racial or religious beliefs, or sexual activities. The remainder of the pretest interview focuses on the specific questions you will be asked during the examination. These may include questions about your prior employment, driving record, drug use, and criminal history. The examiner wants to learn enough to assess your readiness for the examination and to prepare anxiety-provoking control questions. The polygraph examiner will then explain the polygraph technique to you before starting the actual examination.  »Polygraph exam questions Gone are the days a polygraph examiner asked if you ever had sex with a farm animal. Pre-employment polygraph examinations fall under the guidelines for employment interviewing of title VII of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, so examiners are obliged to conduct the examinations in a way that would not discriminate on the basis of sex, race, etc. One central principle of ethical standards is that relevant questions be related to the job applied for. Here are typical questions asked on the police polygraph test: Did you tell the complete truth on your job application? Have you deliberately withheld information from your job application? Have you ever been fired from a job? Since the age of ( ) have you committed an undetected crime? Since the age of ( ) have you been convicted of a crime? During the past year, have you used marijuana more than ( ) per ( )? Have you used any other narcotic illegally in the past ( ) years? Have you sold marijuana or other narcotics illegally in the past ( ) years? Have you ever stolen more than ($ ) worth of merchandise in any one year from any of your employers? Have you even stolen more than ($ ) in moneys in any one year from any of your employers? Have you ever used a system to cheat one of your employers? Have you ever had your driver’s license suspended or revoked? Have you ever had any traffic citations in the past five ( ) years? Have you deliberately lied to any of these questions? Values, such as age and number of years is determined by the specific department. The method used by John E. Reid Associates employs four standard relevant questions: In the last five years did you steal any merchandise from previous employers? In the last five years did you steal any money from previous employers? In the last ten years did you take part in or commit any serious crime? Did you falsify any information on your application? These standard questions may be modified depending on admissions made during the pretest (e. g. , a revision may be, â€Å"In the last five years did you steal any merchandise other than minor office supplies? â€Å"). In addition to the standard questions a fifth relevant question (e. g. , concerning the illegal purchase or sale of merchandise; use of narcotics) may be added. The Reid firm also uses what it regards as control questions in pre-employment interviews. Control questions include, â€Å"Did you ever steal anything in your life? † and â€Å"Did you lie to any of the questions you answered during the application process for this job? † It is not clear, however, how the Reid pre-employment control questions differ from the relevant questions. It seems reasonable to suppose that both truthful and non-truthful subjects (in terms of the relevant questions) may be just as concerned with the subject matter of the control questions as they are with the relevant questions. It is also not clear why employers would be less concerned with the control than with the relevant questions. Conclusions Some firms still use the polygraph (or lie detector) for honesty testing, although current law severely restricts its use. The polygraph is a device that measures physiological changes like increased perspiration. The assumption is that such changes reflect changes in emotional state that accompany lying. Complaints about offensiveness plus grave doubts about the polygraph’s accuracy culminated in the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988. With a few exceptions the law prohibits employers from conducting polygraph examinations of all job applicants and most employees. Also prohibited under this law are other mechanical or electrical devices that attempt to measure honesty or dishonesty, including psychological stress evaluators and voice stress analyzers. Federal laws don’t prohibit paper and pencil tests and chemical testing. Polygraph examinations are scientific tests that are rooted in the fundamental laws of psychology and physiology. The interviewee’s bodily reactions to her answers are analyzed in accordance to years of study on the human psyche. This scientific method claims direct access to the subject’s memory, which is inaccessible by orthodox means of investigation. Polygraph tests are solely conducted on persons who are mentally and physically sound. There are no accusations, simply questions answerable by â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no. † The examiner is neutral, which, according to the Euro Polygraph Center, enables the subject â€Å"to free himself of any prejudice in connection to his examination and of any external sources of stress. † These tests can also be administered to gauge the honesty of potential employees. _______________ How to cite History of Polygraph Test in the U.S., Essay examples

Vasco Da Gama free essay sample

The Da Gamas were minor aristocrats, and Vasco’s father, Estevao Da Gama and his wife, Dona Isabel Sodre had five sons. Vasco was the third. Skills of Vasco Da Gama Gaspar Correia ,Sixteenth- Century historian, written that it was at Evora where he may have learned mathematics and navigation. It is evident that Gama knew astronomy well, and it is possible that he may have studied under the astronomer Abraham Zacuto. He was also believed to served in the armadas and affairs of the sea, as it was common for sons of noble families to enter into military service. These skills served him well on the highseas. Why was Portgual interested in this expedition? Portuguese King, Joao II wanted to trade with the Africans and establish Portuguese bases for the protection and supply of Portuguese shops. He needed these bases because his quest was ultimately a sea to India, the source of the most promising trade ( silk and spices which is getting more expensive in Europe )in the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Vasco Da Gama or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Why a route on sea? India could not be reach directly by land because of the countries between Portugual and India, which controlled the trade routes. Christian travellers were also blocked by Ottoman Turks from using these land routes. The desert between them also provide them an obstacle to trade with India via land route. Why was Vasco Da Gama chosen for the expedition? In 1495, King Joao II died. Five years earlier in 1490, King Joao II ‘s son and heir, Prince Alfonso was stabbed by Joao’s cousin, Diogo, in a struggle for power. The next in line successor for the throne would be the Queen’s brother, Manuel. But King Joao wanted to pass the crown to his illegitimate son, Jorge. In order to make Jorge’s birth legal, King Joao II needed the cooperation from the Queen and the pope. But he was refused. Unable to secure the throne for Jorge, Jorge was made duke of Coimbra and this gave him considerable power and influence to limit the later King Manuel power. Vasco Da Gama was recognised by the Duke of Coimbra(Jorge) for his service and loyalty. And was give new rights and properties by the Duke. This in turn made Vasco Da Gama loyal to Jorge. While King Joao II was alive, Estevao Da Gama was to lead the expedition to India. But when Estevao died. The right to command was to the oldest son Paulo Da Gama, who was unwell. This inturn made Vasco Da Gama, the leader for the expedition. It was also believed that the King Manuel chosed Vasco so that it would appear that he would be respecting Jorge. To grant such an honour to Vasco paid homage to Jorge. But in fact, if the mission was to fail. Defeat would be the fault of Da Gama and Jorge. Tasks Vasco Da Gama’s task was to setup and secure trading post along the coast of Africa to enforce Portuguese Interest in the East. He was also task to convert the muslims to Christians. Voyages Vasco Da Gama lead a few expedition voyages in his lifetime. The 1st on 8th July 1497 to September 1499 with 4 fleets ( 2 Carracks, 1 Caravel and 1 storage ship) The 2nd on 12 Feburary 1502 to 15th December 1503 with 20 warships. In between 1512-1514. He visited Indonesia and China( need to confirm source again) The final on year 1524 which he died at the City of Cochin on 24th December. His route History Event Worth Mentioning Vasco da Gama to lead a pioneering voyage to India. Vasco Da Gama was the first European to open a sea-based trade route to India. In an epic voyage, he sailed around Africas Cape of Good Hope and succeeded in breaking the monopoly of Arab and Venetian spice traders. Two days later, after leaving St Helena Bay, they rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Mossel Bay, where they traded trinkets with local people in exchange for an ox. When Da Gama tried to trade with the ruling Sultan his paltry gifts were scorned. Despite sparing no expense to equip the expedition, the Portuguese had totally underestimated the quality of goods being traded in this part of the world cotton, ivory, gold and pearls After many stops in Africa, and problems with Muslim traders who did not want interference in their profitable trade routes, Vasco Da Gama reached Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. Da Gama left India on August 29, 1498, after he was told to pay a large tax and leave all of his trading goods. When he left, Da Gama took his goods with him, together with some Indian hostages. Vasco Da Gamas crew suffered terribly from scurvy (lack of vitamin C) and 30 men died. †¦with too few men alive to sail three ships, the St Raphael was burnt. Their task was to consolidate Portuguese dominance of the route to India, but it was to lead to one of the worst maritime massacres in history. Da Gama began a campaign of terror against Muslim shipping After raids on several Muslim ports along the east African coast, da Gama began a campaign of terror against Muslim shipping off the Malabar Coast. Here he captured the Meri, a ship with 200 Muslim pilgrims on the return journey from Mecca, and set it alight. With some 400 men, women and children aboard, da Gama fuelled the fires for four days until all had died. He then moved on to Calicut, where he captured and dismembered 30 fishermen and let their bodies float in with the tide for their families to find. Feared and hated, he left behind the first European naval force in Asian waters. Upon his return home in September 1503, da Gama was richly rewarded by the Portuguese for his efforts and was eventually appointed Viceroy of India Historical Naming after Vasco Da Gama. The Portuguese national epic, the Lusiadas of Luis Vaz de Camoes, largely concerns Vasco da Gamas voyages. The 1865 opera LAfricaine: Opera en Cinq Actes, composed by Giacomo Meyerbeer and Eugene Scribe, prominently includes the character of Vasco da Gama. A 1989 production of the composition by the San Francisco Opera featured noted tenor Placido Domingo in the role of Gama. The port city of Vasco da Gama in Goa is named after him, as is the Vasco da Gama crater, a big crater on the Moon. There are three football clubs in Brazil (including Club de Regatas Vasco da Gama) and Vasco Sports Club in Goa that were also named after him. A church in Kochi, Kerala Vasco da Gama Church, a private residence on the island of Saint Helena and Lisbons Vasco da Gama Bridge and Centro Vasco da Gama shopping centre are also named after him. The suburb of Vasco in Cape Town also honours him. South African musician Hugh Masekela recorded an anti-colonialist song entitled Vasco da Gama (The Sailor Man), which contains the lyrics Vasco da Gama was no friend of mine. He later recorded another version of this song under the name Colonial Man. Vasco Da Gama free essay sample He was also believed to served in the armadas and affairs of the sea, as it was common for sons of noble families to enter into military service. These skills served him well on the highseas. Why was Portgual interested in this expedition? Portuguese King, Joao II wanted to trade with the Africans and establish Portuguese bases for the protection and supply of Portuguese shops. He needed these bases because his quest was ultimately a sea to India, the source of the most promising trade ( silk and spices which is getting more expensive in Europe )in the world. Why a route on sea? India could not be reach directly by land because of the countries between Portugual and India, which controlled the trade routes. Christian travellers were also blocked by Ottoman Turks from using these land routes. The desert between them also provide them an obstacle to trade with India via land route. We will write a custom essay sample on Vasco Da Gama or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Why was Vasco Da Gama chosen for the expedition? In 1495, King Joao II died. Five years earlier in 1490, King Joao II ‘s son and heir, Prince Alfonso was stabbed by Joao’s cousin, Diogo, in a struggle for power. The next in line successor for the throne would be the Queen’s brother, Manuel. But King Joao wanted to pass the crown to his illegitimate son, Jorge. In order to make Jorge’s birth legal, King Joao II needed the cooperation from the Queen and the pope. But he was refused. Unable to secure the throne for Jorge, Jorge was made duke of Coimbra and this gave him considerable power and influence to limit the later King Manuel power. Vasco Da Gama was recognised by the Duke of Coimbra(Jorge) for his service and loyalty. And was give new rights and properties by the Duke. This in turn made Vasco Da Gama loyal to Jorge. While King Joao II was alive, Estevao Da Gama was to lead the expedition to India. But when Estevao died. The right to command was to the oldest son Paulo Da Gama, who was unwell. This inturn made Vasco Da Gama, the leader for the expedition. It was also believed that the King Manuel chosed Vasco so that it would appear that he would be respecting Jorge. To grant such an honour to Vasco paid homage to Jorge. But in fact, if the mission was to fail. Defeat would be the fault of Da Gama and Jorge. Tasks Vasco Da Gama’s task was to setup and secure trading post along the coast of Africa to enforce Portuguese Interest in the East. He was also task to convert the muslims to Christians. Voyages Vasco Da Gama lead a few expedition voyages in his lifetime. The 1st on 8th July 1497 to September 1499 with 4 fleets ( 2 Carracks, 1 Caravel and 1 storage ship) The 2nd on 12 Feburary 1502 to 15th December 1503 with 20 warships. In between 1512-1514. He visited Indonesia and China( need to confirm source again) The final on year 1524 which he died at the City of Cochin on 24th December. His route History Event Worth Mentioning Vasco da Gama to lead a pioneering voyage to India. Vasco Da Gama was the first European to open a sea-based trade route to India. In an epic voyage, he sailed around Africas Cape of Good Hope and succeeded in breaking the monopoly of Arab and Venetian spice traders. Two days later, after leaving St Helena Bay, they rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Mossel Bay, where they traded trinkets with local people in exchange for an ox. When Da Gama tried to trade with the ruling Sultan his paltry gifts were scorned. Despite sparing no expense to equip the expedition, the Portuguese had totally underestimated the quality of goods being traded in this part of the world cotton, ivory, gold and pearls After many stops in Africa, and problems with Muslim traders who did not want interference in their profitable trade routes, Vasco Da Gama reached Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. Da Gama left India on August 29, 1498, after he was told to pay a large tax and leave all of his trading goods. When he left, Da Gama took his goods with him, together with some Indian hostages. Vasco Da Gamas crew suffered terribly from scurvy (lack of vitamin C) and 30 men died. †¦with too few men alive to sail three ships, the St Raphael was burnt. Their task was to consolidate Portuguese dominance of the route to India, but it was to lead to one of the worst maritime massacres in history. Da Gama began a campaign of terror against Muslim shipping After raids on several Muslim ports along the east African coast, da Gama began a campaign of terror against Muslim shipping off the Malabar Coast. Here he captured the Meri, a ship with 200 Muslim pilgrims on the return journey from Mecca, and set it alight. With some 400 men, women and children aboard, da Gama fuelled the fires for four days until all had died. He then moved on to Calicut, where he captured and dismembered 30 fishermen and let their bodies float in with the tide for their families to find. Feared and hated, he left behind the first European naval force in Asian waters. Upon his return home in September 1503, da Gama was richly rewarded by the Portuguese for his efforts and was eventually appointed Viceroy of India Historical Naming after Vasco Da Gama. The Portuguese national epic, the Lusiadas of Luis Vaz de Camoes, largely concerns Vasco da Gamas voyages. The 1865 opera LAfricaine: Opera en Cinq Actes, composed by Giacomo Meyerbeer and Eugene Scribe, prominently includes the character of Vasco da Gama. A 1989 production of the composition by the San Francisco Opera featured noted tenor Placido Domingo in the role of Gama. The port city of Vasco da Gama in Goa is named after him, as is the Vasco da Gama crater, a big crater on the Moon. There are three football clubs in Brazil (including Club de Regatas Vasco da Gama) and Vasco Sports Club in Goa that were also named after him. A church in Kochi, Kerala Vasco da Gama Church, a private residence on the island of Saint Helena and Lisbons Vasco da Gama Bridge and Centro Vasco da Gama shopping centre are also named after him. The suburb of Vasco in Cape Town also honours him. South African musician Hugh Masekela recorded an anti-colonialist song entitled Vasco da Gama (The Sailor Man), which contains the lyrics Vasco da Gama was no friend of mine. He later recorded another version of this song under the name Colonial Man.